Sukarno
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| His Excellency Dr. h.c. Ir. H Sukarno |
|
|---|---|
Sukarno in 1949
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| 1st President of Indonesia | |
| In office 18 August 1945 – 12 March 1967 |
|
| Prime Minister | Sutan Sjahrir Amir Sjarifuddin Muhammad Hatta Abdul Halim Muhammad Natsir Soekiman Wirjosandjojo Wilopo Ali Sastroamidjojo Burhanuddin Harahap Djuanda Kartawidjaja |
| Vice President | Mohammad Hatta |
| Preceded by | position established |
| Succeeded by | Suharto |
| 12th Prime Minister of Indonesia as President of Indonesia For Life | |
| In office 9 July 1959 – 25 July 1966 |
|
| President | Himself |
| Preceded by | Djuanda Kartawidjaja |
| Succeeded by | Post abolished |
| Personal details | |
| Born | 6 June 1901 Surabaya, East Java, Dutch East Indies[1] |
| Died | 21 June 1970 (aged 69) Jakarta, Indonesia |
| Political party | Indonesian National Party |
| Height | 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in) |
| Spouse(s) | Oetari Inggit Garnasih Fatmawati (m. 1943–1960) Hartini Kartini Manoppo Dewi Sukarno (m. 1960–1970, his death) Haryati Yurike Sanger Heldy Djafar |
| Children | |
| Alma mater | Bandung Institute of Technology |
| Religion | Sunni Islam |
| Signature |  |
Sukarno (6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970)[2] was the first President of Indonesia, serving in office from 1945 to 1967.
Sukarno was the leader of his country's struggle for Independence from the Netherlands.
He was a prominent leader of Indonesia's nationalist movement during
the Dutch colonial period, and spent over a decade under Dutch detention
until released by the invading Japanese
forces. Sukarno and his fellow nationalists collaborated to garner
support for the Japanese war effort from the population, in exchange for
Japanese aid in spreading nationalist ideas. Upon Japanese surrender,
Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta
declared Indonesian independence on 17 August 1945, and Sukarno was
appointed as first president. He led Indonesians in resisting Dutch
re-colonization efforts via diplomatic and military means until the
Dutch acknowledgment of Indonesian independence in 1949. Author
Pramoedya Ananta Toer once wrote "Sukarno was the only Asian leader of
the modern era able to unify people of such differing ethnic, cultural
and religious backgrounds without shedding a drop of blood."[3]
After a chaotic period of parliamentary democracy, Sukarno established an autocratic system called "Guided Democracy"
in 1957 that successfully ended the instability and rebellions which
were threatening the survival of the diverse and fractious country. The
early 1960s saw Sukarno veering Indonesia to the left by providing support and protection to the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) at the expense of the military and Islamists. He also embarked on a series of aggressive foreign policies under the rubric of anti-imperialism, with aid from the Soviet Union and China. The 30 September Movement (1965) led to the destruction of the PKI and his replacement in 1967 by one of his generals, Suharto (see Transition to the New Order), and he remained under house arrest until his death.
Guided democracy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Guided democracy, also called managed democracy,[1] is a formally democratic government that functions as a de facto autocracy.
Governments are legitimated by elections that are free and fair but
emptied of substantive meaning in their ability to change the state's policies, motives, and goals.[2
In other words, the government has learned to control elections so
that the people can exercise all their rights without truly changing
public policy. While they follow basic democratic principles, there can be major deviations towards authoritarianism.
Under managed democracy, the electorate is prevented from having a
significant impact on policies adopted by the state's continuous use of propaganda techniques.[3]
The concept of a "guided democracy" was developed in the 20th century by Walter Lippmann in his seminal work Public Opinion (1922) and by Edward Bernays in his work Crystallizing Public Opinion.
After the Second World War, the term was used in Indonesia for the approach to government under the Sukarno administration from 1957 to 1966. It is today widely employed in Russia, where it was introduced into common practice by Kremlin theorists, in particular Gleb Pavlovsky.[4] Princeton University professor Sheldon Wolin describes this process as inverted totalitarianism.The United States
can also be said to fit this description because of the enormous
influence of corporate money on the US political system. A recent study
from Princeton University stated "The central point that emerges from
our research is that economic elites and organized groups representing
business interests have substantial independent impacts on US government
policy, while mass-based interest groups and average citizens have
little or no independent influence."[5] The same Princeton study also described the United States as a de facto oligarchy.
An important distinction, however, is the one between governments
that have elections which are judged not free or fair by observers and
governments which have elections considered both free and fair. The Russian Federation under Yeltsin, Putin and Medvedev has also been described as an illiberal democracy. Elections take place regularly, but many foreign observers (e.g. from the OSCE)
do not consider them free or fair. The disturbing rate at which
journalists have been murdered in Russia shows the limits of freedom of
speech. Thirteen Russian journalists died between 2000 and 2003. Also,
most major television networks and newspapers are owned or controlled by
the government and openly support it or parties that support the
government during elections.[6][7]
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from OSCE)
"OSCE" redirects here. For the examination model, see Objective structured clinical examination.
The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) is the world's largest security-oriented intergovernmental organization. Its mandate includes issues such as arms control and the promotion of human rights, freedom of the press and fair elections. It employs around 3,460 people, mostly in its field operations but also in its secretariat in Vienna, Austria and its institutions. It has its origins in the 1975 Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) held in Helsinki, Finland.
The OSCE is concerned with early warning, conflict prevention, crisis management, and post-conflict rehabilitation. Its 57 participating states are located in Europe, northern and central Asia and North America and cover much of the land area of the Northern Hemisphere. It was created during the Cold War era as an East–West forum.[1]
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